Advancements in Electrochemical Sensors for Environmental and Biomedical Analysis

Abstract

The capability to change chemical information into measurable electrical signals with high sensitivity, quick response, and low cost has made electrochemical sensors a highly efficient and versatile analysis tool in environmental and biomedical analysis. In this review, the recent developments in the field of electrochemical sensors are assessed in detail, paying special attention to validation and use in animal research. Amperometric, conductometric and potentiometric sensors are discussed and important advancements made by incorporation of nanomaterials like graphene, carbon nanotubes and metal nanoparticles which are discussed in relation to enhanced electron transfer, selectivity and limits of detection. The review demonstrates the applicability of these sensors in the monitoring of a broad spectrum of analytes, such as heavy metals, glucose, neurotransmitters and pesticides, in dynamic in vivo and ex vivo conditions in animal models. In addition, the incorporation of biosensing components, wearable and implantable devices, microfluidic technologies, and artificial intelligence has increased their potential in terms of real-time, continuous, and multi-analyte detection. The review highlights the importance of designing new materials, enhancing biocompatibility, standardizing the methods, and developing state-of-the-art data analytics to improve the reliability, scalability, and practical use of electrochemical sensors. Taken collectively, these technologies have significant potential in further developing the fields of environmental monitoring, enhancing preclinical diagnostic capabilities, and even future translation of biomedical research.